Agriculture In Deforestation And Desertification Environmental Sciences Essay

Agriculture In Deforestation And Desertification Environmental Sciences Essay The World Resources Institute estimates that more than 50 percent of the earths natural forests have already been destroyed (Hermosilla 2000). The United Nations Environment Programme (2009) states that forests cover 30 per cent of the planets total land area. The total forested area in 2005 was just under 4 billion hectares As a result a United Nations report has stated that deforestation and forest degradation are widely recognized as one of the most critical environmental problems facing human society, with serious long-term economic, social and ecological consequences (UN 1999). The causes of deforestation are widely debated and are attributed to many causes such as over population and urbanisation such as new settlements and transport extensions (Geist and Lambin, 2002). However one of the main causes of deforestation is attributed to agriculture. The arc of deforestation along the southern and eastern extent of the Brazilian Amazon is the most active land-use frontier in the world in terms of total forest loss (Morton et al, 2006) and Globally, the main forest conversion process in the humid tropics was the transformation of closed, open, or fragmented forests to agriculture (Achard et al 2002). Deforestation originally occurred on a small scale level due to subsistence farming or timber collection. However the Amazon rain forest has seen a recent increase in industrial agriculture intensive mechanized agriculture in the Brazilian Amazon grew by >3.6 million hectares during 2001-2004 (Morton et al, 2006) and this has been a significant source of deforestation in recent years. In 2010 cattle are projected to be grazing on some 24million hectares of Neotropical land that was once forest in 2000 (Wassenaar et al, 2006). Figure 1 shows the causes of Amazonian deforestation from 2000- 2005. The pie chart shows that cattle ranching, a part of agriculture is the main cause of deforestation. Cattle ranching accounts for 65-70% of deforestation; vast areas of land are cleared by commercial farmers to raise cattle (for meat and dairy) and to provide pasture land for the cattle to graze. Moreover another major cause of deforestation is small scale agriculture by subsistence farmers. Subsistence farmers are causing deforestation because of poor practices (Butler 2008). Farmers burn the trees to clear them, and then over-exploit the land causing the soil quality to decline which results in the farmers having to find new land (shifting cultivation) and thus destroy more trees. In addition government policies can lead to deforestation. In Brazil the government allows farmers to claim a piece of unclaimed public land which they must use for over a year; and after 5 years they become the official owners of the la nd and so can sell it and claim new land (Butler 2008). In addition population growth and subsequent food demand is also a cause for expanding agriculture. Figure 1. (Butler, 2008) However research has also shown that agriculture is not the main cause or contributor to deforestation. Instead the main cause of deforestation if attributed to population growth, and its subsequent need to find new land for settlements to be built on. Myers, 1984 says that the main reason for deforestation in the tropics is human population growth. In the African and Asian tropics, it is generally associated with high rates of natural increase (i.e., high net rates of population growth due to high fertility) and, in the Amazon, it is assumed to be the high rates of in-migrationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ followed by subsequent intergenerational high rates of natural increase. In addition another primary cause of deforestation, particularly Indonesia is the logging industry. The World Bank (2000) and WRI (2000) state that the leading cause of Indonesian deforestation in the 1990s has been large-scale commercial logging (Palmer 2001). Palmer (2001) continues to say that logging causes areas of forest to be cleared, allowing access to new areas of forest and as a result previously unexploited forest, thus allowing other economic activities such as agricultural conversion and shifting cultivation to take place. Consequently the logging industry can be seen as a major, if not the major contributor to deforestation and not agriculture. Agriculture has been linked to being a cause of desertification, however a variety of other factors are also causes of desertification and a combination or interaction of processes leads to desertification. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development defines desertification as land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities (UNCCD, 1992) The UNCCD states that Desertification does not refer to the expansion of existing deserts. It occurs because dryland ecosystems, which cover over one third of the worlds land area, are extremely vulnerable to over-exploitation and inappropriate land use. Poverty, political instability, deforestation, overgrazing and bad irrigation practices can all undermine the productivity of the land (UNCCD 2005). Agriculture plays a large role in desertification, the over grazing of land by animals particularly damaging to the soil and is a major factor contributing to desertification; overgrazing is by all measures the principal cause of rangeland degradation (Dregne and Chou, 1992).   Over grazing can occur by having too many animals, or by not managing and controlling the animals grazing activities (Rayburn, 2000). Overgrazing reduces plant leaf areas, which reduces interception of sunlight and plant growth.   Plants become weakened and have reduced root length, and the pasture sod weakensà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Overgrazing can increase soil erosion.   Reduced soil depth, soil organic matter, and soil fertility hurt the lands future productivity (Rayburn 2000). Darkoh (2006) highlights that overgrazing in North Africa has led to the desertification of land led to moderate to severe desertification of rangelands in arid and semiarid zones of Algeria, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia Moreover it is not just overgrazing that can lead to soil degradation and desertification. Poor farming techniques such as over exploitation, and constant crop growing without a fallow field can lead to degradation. Arid and semi-arid regions may initially support agriculture, but repeated cultivation frequently leads to a loss of a soils nutrients and water-holding capacity. (Global environmental Governance Project, 2009). Over cultivation removes nutrients from the soil which can lead to the soil becoming derogated and infertile, therefore nothing can grow on it which can lead to soil erosion. In addition to this, poor irrigation systems can lead to salinzation of the soil due to groundwater dissolving salts in the soil. When evaporation takes place, this leaves concentrated amounts of salts in the soil which are toxic to plants and thus the land becomes barren. However agriculture may not be a direct cause of desertification, it can be caused due to knock on effects of population growth and the subsequent increased demand for food. In Africa, a leading cause of desertification is human population pressure which leads to overexploitation and intensified stresses on the natural environment. Africas population has doubled in the past three decades to about 708 million (1994) and continues to expand at a rate of some 3 per cent a year. This means that Africas farmers must feed an additional 21 million people every year (Darkoh, 1998). Moreover population increase can lead to urbanization and more resources being demanded, such as fuel wood which is a common fuel in third world countries; deforestation is also a primary cause of desertification as tree roots bind the soil together, preventing erosion. As a result population pressure has lead to the need for intensive agriculture which can lead to desertification Increased population pressure on the fragile and vulnerable soils of Africas dryland regions, leads to overexploitation of water, land, forest and pasture resources through over cultivation, overgrazing and deforestation. These practices therefore constitute the principal threats to the livelihood of millions of people. These are the foremost causes of soil erosion, the rates of which in Africa are among the highest in the world. (Darkoh,1998). Agriculture plays a large role in deforestation and desertification, but it may not be the main causes of both. Shifting cultivation leads to deforestation as farmers move to new areas of land, often forests which need to be cut down so that the land can be used for agriculture. In addition over grazing and cultivation as well as as poor farming techniques and can lead to desertification. However the real cause of deforestation and desertification can be attributed to government policies and government mismanagement. If governments encourage farmers to seek out new land in the Amazon rain forest, and also do not stop practices of illegal logging. In addition if governments act in their own economic interests and issue policies that lead to environmental harm such as deforestation and desertification then it is not the practices of its people and their techniques (farmers) that cause the damage to the planet, it is the consequence of poor, and often myopic, government policies seeking economic gain; instead of addressing the real causes of the problems of desertification and deforestation. In addition many LEDCs rely on agriculture for economic growth; therefore a balance needs to be met between economic development and sustainability.

Gender Stratification Essay

Carl defined Feminism as â€Å"the vast collection of social movements and theories about gender differences, proposing social equality for all people†. Thinkers of feminism believe that men and women are equal and that women deserve the same opportunities as men. There were three waves of feminism. First-wave feminism was between 19th and 20th century, which was about women’s suffrage movement and protested legal inequality such as voting. Second-wave feminism began in 1960’s, which focused on social independence and equality in the workplace and education. This also included protection form sexual and domestic violence. In 1990’s, a third-wave feminism came about as a result of failure that first and second waves had. The third-wave feminism focused on multiracial and socioeconomic groups. This movement encouraged women to be outspoken and address issues such as abuse, rape, and sexuality. Although women are earning more degrees than men, they continue to face wage gap and glass ceiling at workplace. Feminist theory focuses on bringing equality in work and education as well as expanding the human opportunities for women by allowing their enrollment to graduate schools and career choices. In addition, feminist theory focuses on eliminating gender stratification. A woman can now do a job that was once done by men, such as becoming a Marine. It also focuses on ending violence against women because male violence perpetuates gender inequality in our society. For example, a fake British law allows a man to beat his wife as long as the stick is not larger than his thumb in diameter. There are two types of feminism, liberal and radical. Liberal feminists believe in equal opportunities for women where they can pursue their interests and achieve equality without being discriminated. Radical feminists agree with liberal feminists but they carry the ideas further by focusing on ca pitalism. This is where one might avoid doing traditional women activities such as childbearing. Functionalism theory argues that competition between men and women is eliminated and family life runs smoothly because the differences between them help maintain the society. For example, women are placed in a sphere where they take care of children and perform domestic tasks while men go out and work to provide for the family, which are complementary. In conflict  theory, it is argued that women are at the bottom of the system regardless. In other words, it is a patriarchal society and the work a woman does is often devalued, reinforcing the power for men. In symbolic interactions, it is believed that behaviors come about by ‘doing gender’ based on everyday interactions such as female behaving in feminine ways and males behaving in masculine ways. Nevertheless, significant feminist efforts and movements are in progress to bring equality between male and females. In this essay, we will discuss chapter 11: Gender Stratification—The Social Side of Sex, from the book Think Sociology by John D. Carl (2011). This essay has three main ideas. The first idea focuses on gender differences in children. We will learn about gender construction, gender roles, and the media. The second idea focuses on gender inequality in education, workplace, and politics. Here, we will learn about lack of career opportunities and wage gap at workplace. The third idea focuses on feminism and the perspectives of the feminist theory. Here, we will have an insight on the types of feminism by learning about functionalism, symbolic interactionism, and conflict theory. With this knowledge, one can understand the gender stratification.

Parkinson s Disease Is A Chronic Progressive Movement...

Parkinson s disease is a chronic progressive movement disorder of the central nervous system. Early in the course of the disease, the most obvious symptoms are movement-related; these include shaking, rigidity, slowness of movement and difficulty with walking and Parkinson’s like gait (leaning forward, small fast pace steps, shuffling, etc.). Parkinson’s involves the malfunction and death of nerve cells in the brain, entitled neurons. Although damage can be spread about, it primarily affects neurons in an area of the brain called the substantia nigra. The substantia nigra controls voluntary movement, produces the neurotransmitter dopamine, and regulates mood. When taking an in-depth look into the changes a Parkinson’s patient goes through, we see symptoms clearly connecting to that of the substantia nigra malfunctioning. Parkinson’s disease is a chronic and progressive disorder of the brain primarily affecting the motor system, but also affecting thinking and emotion. By no means is this disease a new disease, in fact it has been seen throughout history, Parkinson s is a condition that has been known about since ancient times. Despite the incredible amount of history this disease has, Parkinson s has a long empty history of absolutely no true understanding until the early nineteenth century. Parkinson s disease was first medically described as a neurological syndrome by James Parkinson in 1817, though this was the first neurological discovery, fragments of ParkinsonismShow MoreRelatedParkinson’S Disease. Abstract. Parkinson’S Disease Is A2430 Words   |  10 PagesParkinson’s Disease Abstract Parkinson’s Disease is a very common disorder these days. Over 10 million people live daily with Parkinson worldwide. Parkinson’s Disease was named after an English surgeon James Parkinson who wrote a detailed description essay called Shaking Palsy in 1817. 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Does Advertising Unhealthy Food to Children in America...

Does Advertising Unhealthy Food to Children in America Cause Obesity? Executive Summary Since the 1970’s the United States has been witness to a growing epidemic of childhood obesity tripling and in some instances quadrupling. Due to this major health concern it is believed that the advertising of unhealthy foods is the cause of childhood obesity in America. Majority of the advertising is done via television, which promotes fast food or â€Å"junk food† and is usually low in nutrition and high in sugar and sodium. The Federal Trade Commission, Institute of Medicine, and various health interest groups understand the issue at hand, and have considered taking preventive measures to stop this problem. Understanding the†¦show more content†¦2). Many of the advertisers feel that their commercials do not have much of an impact on children’s weight, so let’s discuss the content and methods of advertising they use. Out of all of the advertisements on television, according to Warren et al. (2008) breakfast ads, such as cereal covered for as much as â€Å"half of all food commercials†, and â€Å"fast-food ads† accounted for a little less. Out of all the food ads on television these two groups â€Å"represented the majority† that are targeted towards children (p. 3). So the evidence is there and it’s clear to see who the target market is. According to Zimmerman and Bell (2010) â€Å"The typical first-grade child can already recognize and respond to more than 200 brands† (p. 4). Children seem to be the main focus for the greater part of food advertisements, which tend to be extremely unhealthy. There is a method to advertising and the agencies have an understanding that children have a particular pattern for what is known as their peak viewing hours. Studies have shown that children have the tendency to watch television more often on Saturday mornings and evenings, as well as Sunday evenings. It was noted by Zimmerman and Bell (2010) that during the weekends, children were more likely to view unhealthy food commercials â€Å"every 5 minutes† (p. 4). So during these days, this would be the ideal time for advertisers to target kids.Show MoreRelatedObesity : Obesity And Obesity1472 Words   |  6 PagesObesity in our society continues to grow at an alarming rate. America is the richest country but has the largest population of obese people in the world. â€Å"Nearly 36.5% of American’s are obese (Adult Obesity Facts).† It is important to note that obesity is defined as having a Body Mass Index (BMI) of â€Å"30% or more† (The Socioeconomic Causes o f Obesity). People become obese over times for many reasons like feeling there is less of a need to exercise and eat healthy. There are also more fast food selectionsRead MoreThe Dietary Influences Of Childhood Obesity Essay1435 Words   |  6 Pageschildhood obesity throughout the United States than ever before. 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